The Individual and Combined Effects of Warming and Atrazine on <i>Lithobates pipiens</i> Phenotypes: Implications for Frog Declines
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Amphibians are the most threatened vertebrate class globally. Climate change, agrochemicals, and/or pathogens and parasites are implicated in contributing to amphibian declines, either singly or in combination. We investigated individual and combined effects of elevated temperatures and atrazine (2.0 μg/L) on Lithobates [formerly Rana] pipiens phenotypes, in a mesocosm experiment. We sampled tadpoles after 2 weeks, and other individuals at the completion of metamorphosis for endpoints relative to development, locomotor performance, immunity, and stress. Temperatures ranged from 7.18°C to 31.27°C over the experimental period, with a significant ~2°C difference between temperature treatments: warming and ambient. Whereas we found no effect of atrazine alone, we found strong effects of temperature, and some evidence of an interaction between atrazine and temperature on various phenotypic attributes. In tadpoles, elevated temperatures were associated with increased growth, accelerated development, and may have reduced stress, but decreased locomotor performance. Elevated temperatures also interacted with atrazine, offsetting an atrazine-mediated delay in tadpole development. In metamorphs, elevated temperatures accelerated development at the cost of reduced size, but did not influence locomotor performance. However, warming was associated with lowered immunity, reflecting a trade-off between growth and immune function. Elevated temperatures and atrazine also combined to affect metamorph neutrophil to lymphocyte ratios, reducing immunocompetency. Our results highlight the importance of incorporating multiple environmentally relevant stressors, thought important to amphibian declines in ecotoxicological studies, and of assessing multiple developmental stages.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".