GEANT 4: an Object-Oriented toolkit for simulation in HEP
Bibliographic record
Abstract
%RD44 %title\\\\ \\\\The GEANT4 software has been developed by a world-wide collaboration of about 100 scientists from over 40 institutions and laboratories participating in more than 10 experiments in Europe, Russia, Japan, Canada, and the United States. The GEANT4 detector simulation toolkit has been designed for the next generation of High Energy Physics (HEP) experiments, with primary requirements from the LHC, the CP violation, and the heavy ions experiments. In addition, GEANT4 also meets the requirements from the space and medical communities, thanks to very low energy extensions developed in a joint project with the European Space Agency (ESA). GEANT4 has exploited advanced software engineering techniques (for example PSS-05) and Object-Oriented technology to improve the validation process of the physics results, and in the same time to make possible the distributed software design and development in the world-wide collaboration. Fifteen specialised working groups have been responsible for fields as diverse as physics, geometric modelling, visualisation, event generation, and user interfaces. The geometric modelling is CAD compliant via the STEP ISO standard. The tranport in electromagnetic and other types of fields is performed via several optional mathematical techniques for integration of the equation of motion. Virtually any graphics system can be used for visualisation purposes, including VRML for detectors and physics events. The widest energy range for electromagnetic interactions for gammas (including optical photons and x-rays), electrons, protons, and ions is covered via implementations from the eV region to the TeV energy regime. Muon physics extends beyond the PeV energies for cosmic rays experiments. The full set of hadronic physics interactions is implemented via alternative or complementary physics models, ranging from theoretical models, to parameterisations, and to data-driven models. Neutrons physics is modelled down to thermal and cold energies for radiation background studies (including a wide set of biasing options), offering a choice and a combination of neutron data from all existing databases in the world. These features make GEANT4 the most powerful integrated simulation tool developed to date. The GEANT4 project was proposed to and approved by the CERN Detector Research Development Committee (DRDC) at the end of 1994 as the R\\&D project RD44. From 1995 to its completion at the end of 1998 the project has reported to the CERN Large Hadron Collider Committee (LHCC). It has met all the required milestones. A first prototype was delivered at the end of 1995, the first alpha version was released in Spring 1997, and the first beta version at mid-1998. The first production version has been released in December 1998. With the release of the first production version the RD44 project has met its goals and has terminated. A formal collaboration, based on a Memorandum Of Understanding signed by CERN, major HEP laboratories and experiments, and by the European Space Agency, has been created to address the production phase of the software. Thus it should be possible for GEANT4 to take the inheritance of the GEANT3.21 (the de-facto standard simulation program which has been used to simulate the LEP, DESY, FNAL, SLAC detectors and many fixed target experiments, and to model all the four LHC detectors, as referenced in their relative Technical Proposals and Technical Design Reports) application domains and beyond. In less than one year from the first production release, GEANT4 has in facts already been successfully applied to test-beams studies for LHC in HEP, to astronomy-related space detectors, and to critical medical studies.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.004 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.032 | 0.012 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".