Two spirit Indigenous offenders in the Correctional Service of Canada: cultural reclamation and need for a healing approach to policies and programs
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Two Spirit is an Indigenous identity that is gender variant and includes the interrelatedness of all aspects of identity including sexuality, gender, culture, community and spirituality. Colonization has profoundly (and adversely) impacted Indigenous identities, including those who self-identify as Two Spirit. To date, there has been limited academic research on Two Spirit identity. More specifically, research to address the social epidemic of Indigenous peoples who are overrepresented in the criminal justice system and federally incarcerated in Canadian prisons does not yet adequately consider the unique identity and needs of Two Spirit individuals. Even the Truth and Reconciliation Commission provides only a singular passing reference to Two Spirit persons in its summary report. In this paper, the author argues that Two Spirit identities have been largely excluded from the overall Correctional Service of Canada (CSC) profile within policies, programs and institutional infrastructure. In view of the 2016 introduction of Bill C-16: An Act to Amend the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code protecting gender identity and expression as prohibited grounds of discrimination, the author focuses on the need for greater inclusion of the Two Spirit identity within the CSC policies and programs. Existing human rights protections now include supports for the rights of gender identity and expression, sexual orientation, and biological sex beyond the current policy framework. Indeed, human rights protections have expanded to create space for the CSC to recognize and include gender fluid identities and expressions for Two Spirit offenders. A main conclusion and recommendation is that the existing binary gender (male/female) framework built on heteronormativity must be challenged and evolve to develop an educated incarceration approach for Two Spirit offenders.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.011 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.048 | 0.017 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.010 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.003 | 0.009 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.007 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".