Comparison of the EU and US experiences with respect to controlling emissions from high emitting vehicles
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The major air pollutants emitted from road traffic -petrol and diesel vehicles -are nitrogen oxides, particles, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and different toxic substance, e.g.heavy metals and polycyclic hydrocarbons.Several measures have been taken in Europe as well as in the US, Canada, Japan and other countries to address these emissions.The measures included emissions limit values (discussed in case study 1 and 4) and improved fuel quality (discussed in case study 1 and 4).The emissions of pollutants from new vehicles have been reduced significantly within the last 20 years.The largest improvements were obtained through the introduction of three-way catalysts on petrol cars including lead free petrol, reduced sulphur in diesel and petrol fuel, engine technology and different methods (e.g.filters) to reduce particle emissions.A small fraction of the car fleet accounts for a large share of the emissions in many countries.A number of approaches have been undertaken to address emissions from these "high emitting" vehicles.We considered two specific approaches-inspection and maintenance (I/M) and vehicle scrappage programmes.&203$5,621 2) 7+( 7:2 $3352$&+( 6Below we briefly describe the efforts of the EU-15 and US to address these high emitting vehicles through I/M and scrappage programmes.Greater details on the legislation adopted and regulation implemented in the EU-15 and US is discussed in Annex II and III, respectively, to this section.(8 0HPEHU 6WDWHV DUH UHVSRQVLEOH WR GHYHORS QDWLRQDO UHJXODWLRQV WKDW PHHW WKH 5RDGZRUWKLQHVV )UDPHZRUN 'LUHFWLYH The Roadworthiness Framework Directive was first implemented in 1977 and updated several times, latest in 1996.The directive includes safety as well as air emissions, and covered in the first versions only commercial vehicles, but now also private vehicles.These programmes require compulsory vehicle inspection to ensure that the vehicle owner has done the necessary maintenance in order for the emission control system to function properly.Testing must be conducted at least every two years once the vehicle is four years old.Most Member States test more frequently.The Roadworthiness Framework Directive has followed up with Directive 2000/30/EC on "The technical roadside inspection of the roadworthiness of commercial vehicles circulating in the Community", which gives possibilities for roadside inspections.The latest Directive 2003/26/EC of 3 April 2003 "adapting to technical progress Directive 2000/30/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards speed limiters and exhaust emissions of commercial vehicles" include possibilities for use of OBD (On Board Diagnostic) as an alternative to the tests, provided a proper function of the OBD systems.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.005 | 0.005 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".