Temporal and Spatial Characteristics of Snowstorms in the Contiguous United States
Bibliographic record
Abstract
A climatological analysis of snowstorms across the contiguous United States, based on data from 1222 \nweather stations with data during 1901–2001, defined the spatial and temporal features. The average annual \nincidence of events creating 15.2 cm or more in 1 or 2 days, which are termed as snowstorms, exhibits great \nspatial variability. The pattern is latitudinal across most of the eastern half of the United States, averaging \n0.1 storm (1 storm per 10 years) in the Deep South, increasing to 2 storms along the Canadian border. This \npattern is interrupted by higher averages downwind of the Great Lakes and in the Appalachian Mountains. \nIn the western third of the United States where snow falls, lower-elevation sites average 0.1–2 storms per \nyear, but averages are much higher in the Cascade Range and Rocky Mountains, where 5–30 storms occur \nper year. Most areas of the United States have had years without snowstorms, but the annual minima are \n1 or more storms in high-elevation areas of the West and Northeast. The pattern of annual maxima of \nstorms is similar to the average pattern. The temporal distribution of snowstorms exhibited wide fluctuations \nduring 1901–2000, with downward 100-yr trends in the lower Midwest, South, and West Coast. Upward \ntrends occurred in the upper Midwest, East, and Northeast, and the national trend for 1901–2000 was \nupward, corresponding to trends in strong cyclonic activity. The peak periods of storm activity in the United \nStates occurred during 1911–20 and 1971–80, and the lowest frequency was in 1931–40. Snowstorms first \noccur in September in the Rockies, in October in the high plains, in November across most of the United \nStates, and in December in the Deep South. The month with the season’s last storms is December in the \nSouth and then shifts northward, with April the last month of snowstorms across most of the United States. \nStorms occur as late as May and June in the Rockies and Cascades. Snowstorms are most frequent in \nDecember downwind of the Great Lakes, with the peak of activity in January for most other areas of the \nUnited States.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".