Releases of refrigerant gases (CFC-12, HCFC-22 and HFC-134a) to the atmosphere
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Two of the gases, CFC-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane, CF2Cl2) and HCFC-22 (chlorodifluoromethane, CHClF2) have long histories of emission from refrigeration and other uses. Production and sales records show the expected fall in the amounts of CFC-12 used in refrigeration after the Montreal Protocol came into effect but this does not seem to have been accompanied by significant substitution by HCFC-22, demand for which appears governed by organic growth. HFC-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, CH2FCF3) is a relative newcomer that has partially substituted for CFC-12. After developing a single data set for the global use of each substance in refrigeration, foam blowing and aerosol propulsion, and other promptly emissive uses, annual releases of the compounds were estimated by applying emission functions derived from surveying both the producers of the chemicals and the principal industrial users. For CFC-12 and HFC-134a, atmospheric concentrations calculated from the emissions estimated here are in good agreement with observations, verifying that the emission functions adequately describe the relationship between the quantities in use, the atmospheric lifetimes of 100 and 14.6 years, respectively, and the extent of release into the atmosphere. The agreement between observation and calculation is poorer for HCFC-22, if its atmospheric lifetime is 12 years, but becomes much closer with a lifetime of 10 years. An 80 % reduction in CFC requirement has been substituted only to the extent of 25 % by HFC-134a. This is
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".