Preliminary and Incomplete Understanding Health Differences by Education
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In 1990, a 25 year-old male college graduate could expect to live another 54 years. A high school dropout of the same age could expect to live 8 years fewer (Richards and Barry, 1998). This enormous difference in life expectancy by education is true for every demographic group, is persistent – if not increasing – over time (Kitagawa and Hauser, 1973; Elo and Preston, 1996), and is present in other countries (for the UK: Marmot, Shipley, and Rose, 1984; for Canada Mustard, et al. 1997), including northern European countries (Kunst and Mackenback, 1994) and developing countries (see Cutler and Lleras-Muney 2006 for additional references). It is also largely unexplained. We search for explanations in this paper. We focus our analysis on the health behaviors (rather than the health) of the better and less well educated. Behavioral differences by education are large. Nearly 30 percent of people with less than a high school degree smoke, three times the rate of people with a college degree. Twenty-four percent of people with less than a high school degree are obese; twice the rate as college graduates. Eight percent of adults who have not completed high school are heavy drinkers, double the rate of college graduates. The
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.013 | 0.040 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.004 | 0.004 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.008 |
| Open science | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.034 | 0.003 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".