Transforming Bentonite into High Sorption Capacity Organoclays for Gasoline, Diesel, and Kerosene
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Bentonite is the most widely used raw material for producing organoclays, which have numerous industrial and environmental applications. Due to their hydrophobicity, high swelling, and strong affinity for organic compounds, organoclays are effective in removing organic solvents from contaminated water originating from pipeline leaks, oil spills, traffic accidents, and industrial discharges. Such contamination not only degrades water quality but also forms surface films that hinder oxygen transfer, threatening aquatic ecosystems. In this study, two sodium bentonites with different specific surface areas (30 and 50 m2/g) were modified with three quaternary ammonium salts of varying molar masses and alkyl chain lengths (Sun, Arq, and Arm) to evaluate their performance in organic solvent sorption (gasoline, diesel, and kerosene). The materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential thermal analysis (DTA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and swelling capacity and sorption efficiency. The swelling capacity was determined according to ASTM D5890-19 (Foster method) using gasoline, diesel, kerosene, toluene, and xylene, while the sorption efficiency was assessed following ASTM F726-17 in gasoline, diesel, and kerosene, chosen due to their high potential for water contamination and frequent occurrence in oil spill and leakage scenarios. These solvents also differ in polarity and aromatic content, providing a relevant model for hydrocarbon mixtures commonly found in the environment. Results showed that the interaction between the clay and the surfactant depended strongly on the modifier’s chemical structure. The sorption capacity increased with greater interlayer expansion, surfactant molar mass, and specific surface area of the clay. Among all samples, the Arm-modified natural bentonite (VLArm) exhibited the best performance, with adsorption capacities of up to 6 g/g for diesel, 5 g/g for gasoline, and 5 g/g for kerosene. These values exceeded most previously reported organoclays. These findings demonstrate that optimizing the combination of clay properties and surfactant chemistry can yield highly efficient, low-cost organoclays for environmental remediation of organic contaminants.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".