Meta-Analysis: Parenting Children and Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Compared to Healthy Controls
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Objective This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to quantify differences in parenting practices between families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and typically developing controls. Method We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies comparing parenting practices among children and adolescents (≤18 years) with a specialist-confirmed ADHD diagnosis and non-clinical controls. PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched from inception through August 12, 2025, without language restrictions. Studies were eligible if they used validated instruments to assess at least one parenting dimension and reported comparative data. A total of 62 studies from 19 countries were included (N = 13,105; ADHD=6,543; controls=6,562). We computed pooled standardized mean differences (Hedges g ) using random-effects models and evaluated heterogeneity ( Q and I 2 ), 95% prediction intervals, and risk of bias (Newcastle–Ottawa Scale). Meta-regression and subgroup analyses examined potential moderators. Results Parents of children with ADHD showed significantly lower levels of positive parenting ( g = –0.37, 95% CI=–0.46 to –0.27) and higher levels of negative parenting ( g = 0.47, 95% CI=0.39 to 0.56) than controls. The strongest effects were found for authoritative parenting ( g = –0.56), warmth ( g = –0.45), abuse ( g = 0.60), family conflict ( g = 0.52), and hostility ( g = 0.51). Heterogeneity was high ( I 2 ≥ 90%), and no consistent moderators or small-study effects were identified. Conclusion Parenting differs significantly between families of children with and without ADHD. Interventions should promote structured, warm, and non-coercive parenting. High heterogeneity and cross-sectional designs limit causal inference. Study registration information Comparison between parenting factors in the upbringing of ADHD vs. non-ADHD children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis; https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/view/CRD42024623095.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.020 | 0.046 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.005 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.024 | 0.065 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.008 | 0.007 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.005 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".