Darwinian Evolution's First 50 Years of Impact on Medicine and Botany at the University of Toronto, 1859 to 1909
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Prior to Darwin's masterworks, a university professor of medicine's purview generally included the professorship of botany and direction of the botanical gardens. Yet from the landmark 1876 Johns Hopkins model and especially after the 1910 Flexner Report, botany was limited at certain medical schools to (exaggerating somewhat) "decorating their lobbies!" Darwinian-era scientific paradigms spread from continental Europe through promulgators such as Huxley and Osler, transforming laboratory research, disease aetiology, biochemical therapeutics, and clinical "bedside" teaching. Unintended consequences at universities with medical schools might include altered loyalties and resources among competing disciplines. At the University of Toronto, botany vis-à-vis medicine was gradually treated as passé or secondary to zoology for modern, scientific platforms. This pattern was not universal; botany strongholds at universities such as Harvard continued to flourish. Where a negative perspective took hold with evolutionary impacts, botanists' careers became limited and the impetus for maintaining botanic research and teaching facilities such as a university botanical gardens was impaired. Résumé: Avant les travaux de Darwin, l'expertise d'un professeur de médecine à l'université incluait généralement l'enseignement de la botanique et la direction de jardins botaniques. Toutefois, à partir du fameux modèle John Hopkins de 1876 et plus encore après le Flexner Report de 1910, la botanique se limita dans certaines écoles médicales – en exagérant à peine – à la « décoration des halls d'entrée ! » Le paradigme scientifique darwinien se répandit depuis l'Europe continentale grâce à des ambassadeurs tels que Huxley et Osler, transformant les laboratoires de recherche, l'étiologie des maladies, les thérapies biochimiques et l'enseignement clinique au chevet des patients. Ces transformations eurent des conséquences inattendues dans les universités dotées d'une école médicale, en termes notamment de loyautés mitigées et de luttes pour les ressources entre disciplines concurrentes. À l'University of Toronto, notamment, la botanique fut graduellement jugée archaïque par comparaison avec la médecine, ou secondaire par rapport à la zoologie. Cette tendance ne fut toutefois pas universelle et les châteaux forts de la botanique dans des universités comme Harvard ont continué à prospérer. Là où les perceptions négatives ont eu des effets à long terme cependant, les carrières des botanistes ont été freinées tandis que l'élan nécessaire à la recherche en botanique et au maintien d'infrastructures d'enseignement comme les jardins botaniques retomba.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".