Bibliographic record
Abstract
In cooperation with the Geological Survey of Norway, the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority, and local health authorities, 1604 groundwater samples collected from Precambrian and Palaeozoic crystalline bedrock aquifers and 72 groundwater samples from Quaternary aquifers were analysed for radon, pH, and major and minor elements. A representative subset of 476 samples was further analysed for trace elements at the Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Germany.There appears to be a degree of lithological control on radon, fluoride, uranium and several other trace elements, shown as elevated contents in granitic groundwaters and depletions in anorthositic groundwaters. However, the concentration of a particular element in groundwater from a distinct lithology may span over 4 orders of magnitude, suggesting that other (kinetic and hydrodynamic) factors are equally important. A significant percentage of the analysed hard rock groundwaters do not fulfil the Norwegian standards for drinking water quality (the following as percentages of the n=476 subset), e.g. pH: 7%, Rn: 16%, F: 16%, Na: 1.5%, Fe: 14%, Mn: 26%, Al: 3.8%, Zn: 2.3%, Ba: 8%, As: 1.5 %, and U: 12 % (using US norm).pH values range from 5.6 to 9.8 in crystalline bedrock groundwaters with a predominance between 8.0 and 8.3, irrespective of rock type, suggesting buffering by the calcium-carbonate system. Geochemical modelling indicates that pH values above 8.3 may possibly be due to exhaustion of this buffering system by calcite precipitation, as well as by cation exchange against sodium. pH has also been shown to influence the concentrations of many elements in groundwater. Groundwaters from Quaternary sedimentary aquifers in Norway are generally less hydrochemically mature than their bedrock counterparts, with lower pH values and concentrations of Rn and F well below drinking water norms.Regular sampling of five boreholes during one year indicates that crystalline bedrock hydrogeochemistry is relatively stable over time, but intrusion of waters of short residence time and surficial nature (possibly due to poor well construction) can affect the water quality significantly. The groundwater chemistry of Norwegian hard rock aquifers resembles their Canadian and Fennoscandian counterparts, but differs systematically from lithologically comparable British aquifers. This suggests a distinct geochemical evolution for groundwaters from areas strongly affected by glacial erosion during Quaternary time. This may be related to the fact that aquifer host-rock is relatively chemically and physically unweathered in glacially scoured terrains, compared with deeper weathering profiles present in landscapes not recently glaciated.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".