Bibliographic record
Abstract
The Old Enigma. The most enigmatic of elementary particles, neutrinos were postulated in 1930, but were not observed until a quarter of a century later. It took another forty years to determine that they are not massless. Neutrinos are a ubiquitous if imperceptible part of our environment. Neutrinos created in the Big Bang together with the cosmic background radiation pervade the entire Universe. The Sun is a poweful source of MeV neutrinos. Neutrinos in the GeV range are created when cosmic rays strike the atmosphere, 15 kilometers or so above the Earth's surface. Every nuclear reactor emits antineutrinos copiously. High-energy neutrinos are regularly produced at accelerators through particle decay and carefully fashioned magnetic fields can focus produced unstable charged particles to create neutrino beams. Traditionally, efforts were made to set upper limits on the masses of the neutrinos associated with the electron, muon, and tau lepton. As explained in Chapter 6, if the electron neutrino were sufficiently massive the electron spectrum in tritium beta decay would be distorted near the end point. This prompted many painstaking measurements over the past thirty years. The expression for the spectrum actually depends on the square of the neutrino mass and the best fits can return unphysical, negative values for this.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.013 | 0.003 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".