Evidence-based medicine and clinical decision-making in spine surgery

The adoption of evidence-based medicine's (EBM) principles for medical research has been one of the greatest scientific breakthroughs of the twentieth century [[1]Djulbegovic B. Guyatt G.H. Progress in evidence-based medicine: a quarter century on.Lancet. 2017; 390: 415-423https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31592-6Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (430) Google Scholar,[2]Chung K.C. Ram A.N Evidence-based medicine: the fourth revolution in American medicine?.Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009; 123: 389-398https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181934742Crossref PubMed Scopus (54) Google Scholar]. In fact, for scientists and physicians of our generation, to whom systematic reviews, meta-analyses and clinical guidelines are an essential part of our scientific landscape, it seems hard to believe that before the passage of the U.S. Kefauver-Harris Amendment in 1962, testing of new drugs and medical devices in human clinical trials was not even a legal requirement for obtaining approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [[3]Peltzman Sam An evaluation of consumer protection legislation: the 1962 drug amendments.J Polit Econ. Sep.-Oct., 1973; 81: 1051Crossref Google Scholar]. However, unlike some of the classic trials in medical specialties, which have led to major advances [4Czeizel A.E. Dudás I. Prevention of the first occurrence of neural-tube defects by periconceptional vitamin supplementation.N Engl J Med. 1992; 327: 1832-1835https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199212243272602Crossref PubMed Scopus (2676) Google Scholar, 5MERIT-HF Study GroupEffect of metoprolol CR/XL in chronic heart failure: metoprolol CR/XL randomised intervention trial in congestive heart failure (MERIT-HF).Lancet. 1999; 353: 2001-2007Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (4431) Google Scholar, 6Liggins G.C. Howie R.N. A controlled trial of antepartum glucocorticoid treatment for prevention of the respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants.Pediatrics. 1972; 50: 515Crossref PubMed Google Scholar], the history of clinical trials in surgical specialties has been somewhat less grandiose, in part due to the natural challenges involved in randomization and blinding of surgical patients [[7]Cook J.A. The challenges faced in the design, conduct and analysis of surgical randomised controlled trials.Trials. 2009; 10 (Published 2009 Feb 6. doi:): 9https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6215-10-9Crossref PubMed Scopus (219) Google Scholar,[8]Ergina P.L. Cook J.A. Blazeby J.M. et al.Challenges in evaluating surgical innovation.Lancet. 2009; 374: 1097-1104https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61086-2Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (460) Google Scholar]. This is certainly true for spine surgery. In this editorial, some of these clinical trials will be discussed with the goal of establishing a few heuristic principles on how to properly evaluate the practical implications of EBM results while avoiding uncritical and blind reliance on “high-quality clinical evidence”. The Second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study (NASCIS-2) was a prospective randomized clinical trial which evaluated the outcomes of high-dose methylprednisolone (bolus of 30 mg/kg, followed by a continuous infusion of 5.4 mg/kg/h for 23 h) versus placebo for patients with acute spinal cord injury (SCI) presenting within 12 h of the initial traumatic event [[9]Bracken M.B. Shepard M.J. Collins W.F. et al.A randomized, controlled trial of methylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinal-cord injury. Results of the second national acute spinal cord injury study.N Engl J Med. 1990; 322: 1405-1411https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199005173222001Crossref PubMed Scopus (2192) Google Scholar]. Although at 1-year follow-up there were no differences in neurological outcomes between both groups, a subgroup analysis suggested that patients who received steroids within 8 h had superior outcomes in terms of both sensory and motor function motor at 6 months. Among other criticisms [[10]Nesathurai S Steroids and spinal cord injury: revisiting the NASCIS 2 and NASCIS 3 trials.J Trauma. 1998; 45: 1088-1093https://doi.org/10.1097/00005373-199812000-00021Crossref PubMed Scopus (216) Google Scholar], it has been pointed that stratification based on an 8-hour timeframe was not part of the initial design and, therefore, data dredging (also called p-hacking) through multiple subgroup analyses using different timeframes and subcategories may have led to possible spurious findings. It has been estimated that, by subdividing patients in complete and incomplete injuries, paraplegic, tetraplegic and paretic patients, among several other groupings, at least 27 subgroup analyses were performed with the obtained data. As it has been classically demonstrated by an interesting subgroup analysis included in the original manuscript of the Second International Study of Infarct Survival (ISIS-2) [[11]ISIS-2 Collaborative GroupRandomised trial of intravenous streptokinase, oral aspirin, both, or neither among 17,187 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction: ISIS-2. ISIS-2 (second international study of infarct survival) collaborative group.Lancet. 1988; 2: 349-360PubMed Google Scholar], even a bizarre stratification of patients according to astrological signs may be enough to change the status of statistical significance between the intervention and the control groups. Finally, it should be highlighted that in NASCIS-2, the placebo group treated within 8 h did worse not only when compared with the methylprednisolone group treated within 8 h but also when compared with the placebo group treated after 8 h, possibly suggesting a significant imbalance between such groups at baseline [[12]Coleman W.P. Benzel D. Cahill D.W. et al.A critical appraisal of the reporting of the national acute spinal cord injury studies (II and III) of methylprednisolone in acute spinal cord injury.J Spinal Disord. 2000; 13: 185-199https://doi.org/10.1097/00002517-200006000-00001Crossref PubMed Scopus (228) Google Scholar]. Although it actually took more than 2 decades before guidelines from professional organizations, including the Congress of Neurological Surgeons (CNS) and the American Association of Neurological Surgeons (AANS), published formal recommendations against the use of high-dose methylprednisolone therapy in patients with acute SCI [[13]Hurlbert R.J. Hadley M.N. Walters B.C. et al.Pharmacological therapy for acute spinal cord injury.Neurosurgery. 2013; 72 (doi:10.1227): 93-105Crossref PubMed Scopus (211) Google Scholar], there were in fact some early criticisms regarding the way such a trial was conducted, presented and interpreted [[14]Hanigan W.C. Anderson R.J. Commentary on NASCIS-2.J Spinal Disord. 1992; 5: 125-133https://doi.org/10.1097/00002517-199203000-00019Crossref PubMed Scopus (27) Google Scholar]. During this period a whole generation of spine surgeons has routinely prescribed high-dose methylprednisolone for the treatment of acute spinal cord injury, with a significant proportion of physicians doing so mainly because of fear of litigation [[15]Falavigna A. Quadros F.W. Teles A.R. et al.Worldwide steroid prescription for acute spinal cord injury.Global Spine J. 2018; 8: 303-310https://doi.org/10.1177/2192568217735804Crossref PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar], despite the fact that there has never been formal FDA approval of methylprednisolone for such an indication. Another interesting exercise on how to properly interpret the results of clinical studies in spine surgery involves two prospective randomized trials which were published in the same volume of the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) in 2016 [[16]Försth P. Ólafsson G. Carlsson T. et al.A randomized, controlled trial of fusion surgery for lumbar spinal stenosis.N Engl J Med. 2016; 374: 1413-1423https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1513721Crossref PubMed Scopus (478) Google Scholar,[17]Ghogawala Z. Dziura J. Butler W.E. et al.Laminectomy plus fusion versus laminectomy alone for lumbar spondylolisthesis.N Engl J Med. 2016; 374: 1424-1434https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1508788Crossref PubMed Scopus (445) Google Scholar]. The first one, known as the Swedish Spinal Stenosis Study, randomized patients with spinal stenosis with or without degenerative spondylolisthesis to decompression alone or decompression with fusion. The study demonstrated no statistical difference in the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) or in the 6-minute walk test between both groups at the 2 and 5-years follow-up, although as expected, operative time, intra-operative blood loss and costs were higher in the fusion group. Based on such results the authors claimed that, among patients with lumbar stenosis with or without spondylolisthesis, the addition of fusion had no substantial benefit in terms of long-term outcomes [[16]Försth P. Ólafsson G. Carlsson T. et al.A randomized, controlled trial of fusion surgery for lumbar spinal stenosis.N Engl J Med. 2016; 374: 1413-1423https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1513721Crossref PubMed Scopus (478) Google Scholar]. The other study published by several well-known spine surgeons in North America, randomized patients with stable grade 1 spondylolisthesis and associated lumbar canal stenosis to decompression alone or decompression and fusion. The study demonstrated a greater increase in the SF-36 physical-component summary (PCS) scores in the surgical group at the 2-year follow-up which persisted at the 3 and 4-years follow-up, although no differences were observed in the ODI. The cumulative rate of re-operation was also different between both groups (34% in the non-instrumented group and 14% in the instrumented group - P = 0.05). Based on such results the authors argued that for patients with stable grade 1 spondylolisthesis, decompression with instrumented fusion had a slightly greater but clinically meaningful impact upon long-term physical health–related qualify of life outcomes as well as lower re-operation rates when compared to decompression alone [[17]Ghogawala Z. Dziura J. Butler W.E. et al.Laminectomy plus fusion versus laminectomy alone for lumbar spondylolisthesis.N Engl J Med. 2016; 374: 1424-1434https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1508788Crossref PubMed Scopus (445) Google Scholar]. Although there are multiple ways to try to reconcile the apparently contradictory results of these two studies in terms of the clinical efficacy of lumbar fusion, a few remarks are pertinent. In the Swedish study no flexion–extension x-rays for evaluation of segmental instability were obtained pre-operatively, which is a significant difference from the standard practice adopted by the vast majority of spine surgeons. According to the study's supplementary appendix, although 90% of the fusion procedures were instrumented posterolateral fusions, only 6 cases were submitted to interbody fusion. It should be noted that, at least in North America, a substantial proportion of instrumented lumbar fusion procedures involves an interbody cage (through either TLIF, ALIF or XLIF/DLIF/OLIF) [[18]Saifi C. Cazzulino A. Laratta J. et al.Utilization and economic impact of posterolateral fusion and posterior/transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion surgeries in the United States.Global Spine J. 2019; 9: 185-190https://doi.org/10.1177/2192568218790557Crossref PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar], techniques which have been associated with higher fusion rates and greater restoration of foraminal height and segmental lordosis. Additionally, a significant proportion of such procedures are performed through a minimally-invasive approach, which has been suggested to be associated with decreased perioperative blood loss and hospital stay, less tissue damage to the paraspinal muscles and possibly superior long-term functional outcomes, especially regarding back pain, when compared to open procedures [[19]Qin R. Liu B. Zhou P. et al.Minimally invasive versus traditional open transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion for the treatment of single-level spondylolisthesis grades 1 and 2: a systematic review and meta-analysis.World Neurosurg. 2019; 122: 180-189https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2018.10.202Crossref PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar]. Therefore, it could be reasonably argued that all the Swedish study demonstrated is that if patients with lumbar stenosis are selected for fusion without a standard protocol for investigation of spinal instability and are operated with old techniques without interbody fusion or minimally invasive approaches, the results of such poorly indicated (and possibly sub-optimally performed) fusions are no different than those of decompression alone. Conversely the North American study demonstrated that, even excluding patients with documented instability (which are the ones who would likely benefit the most from a fusion) and considering only patients with stable grade 1 spondylolisthesis, it seems that instrumented fusion in addition to decompression is associated with lower rates of re-operation and somewhat superior long-term outcomes in terms of quality of life. It should be noted that the authors’ claim about a “slightly greater but clinically meaningful improvement in overall physical health-related quality of life” is debatable, especially as other studies have demonstrated the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) for SF-36-PCS to be higher (4.9 according to Rampersaud et al. [[20]Rampersaud Y.R. Fisher C. Yee A. et al.Health-related quality of life following decompression compared to decompression and fusion for degenerative lumbar spondylolisthesis: a Canadian multicentre study.Can J Surg. 2014; 57: E126-E133https://doi.org/10.1503/cjs.032213Crossref PubMed Scopus (50) Google Scholar] and 10 according to Adogwa et al. [[21]Adogwa O. Elsamadicy A.A. Han J.L. Cheng J. Karikari I. Bagley C.A Do measures of surgical effectiveness at 1 year after lumbar spine surgery accurately predict 2-year outcomes?.J Neurosurg Spine. 2016; 25: 689-696https://doi.org/10.3171/2015.8.SPINE15476Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar], both at 2 year follow-up) than the 3.2 difference observed in this study. I am confident other interpretations of these two studies are plausible and possibly even persuasive. The important point to be highlighted here is that, quite often, different high-quality studies according to EBM standards will demonstrate apparently paradoxical results which require a thoughtful and critical analysis of each study's design, conduction and conclusions before such results can be properly translated to the daily clinical practice. Another clinical study in spine surgery which provides a few interesting lessons is the Spine Patient Outcomes Research Trial (SPORT) trial, a large $13.5 million NIH-funded study which, among other lumbar spine pathologies, compared outcomes of surgery versus conservative treatment for patients with symptomatic lumbar disk herniation [[22]Weinstein J.N. Tosteson T.D. Lurie J.D. et al.Surgical vs nonoperative treatment for lumbar disk herniation: the spine patient outcomes research trial (SPORT): a randomized trial.JAMA. 2006; 296: 2441-2450https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.296.20.2441Crossref PubMed Scopus (800) Google Scholar]. Although the observational SPORT disk herniation cohort study suggested superiority of surgery over conservative treatment [[23]Weinstein J.N. Lurie J.D. Tosteson T.D. et al.Surgical vs nonoperative treatment for lumbar disk herniation: the Spine Patient Outcomes Research Trial (SPORT) observational cohort.JAMA. 2006; 296: 2451-2459https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.296.20.2451Crossref PubMed Scopus (619) Google Scholar], the randomized trial failed to demonstrate a statistically significant difference between the operative and non-operative arms at all time-points. The failure of SPORT to demonstrate a statistically significant difference between both groups seemed to be largely related to the very high cross-over rates (at 3 months only 50% of patients assigned to the operative group actually received surgery, while 30% of those assigned to non-operative treatment received surgery in the same period), which substantially undermined the results of the intention-to-treat analysis. As previously highlighted [[24]Angevine P.D. McCormick P.C SPORT: what neurosurgeons need to know.Clin Neurosurg. 2008; 55: 72-75PubMed Google Scholar], instead of finally demonstrating through EBM standards the efficacy of one of the most commonly performed and well-established procedures in spine surgery, all the SPORT study was able to show was that, regardless of randomization attempts, patients with severe pain will ultimately undergo surgery and present good long-term outcomes while those with mild symptoms will choose to continue conservative treatment with comparable long-term outcomes. The Surgical Timing In Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study (STASCIS) stimulates another important discussion about clinical studies in spine surgery, namely, the necessary level of evidence which should be required before a certain therapy can be recommended [[25]Fehlings M.G. Vaccaro A. Wilson J.R. et al.Early versus delayed decompression for traumatic cervical spinal cord injury: results of the surgical timing in acute spinal cord injury study (STASCIS).PLoS ONE. 2012; 7: e32037https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032037Crossref PubMed Scopus (693) Google Scholar]. Several methodological criticisms have been raised regarding STASCIS [[26]O'Toole J.E. Timing of surgery after cervical spinal cord injury.World Neurosurg. 2014; 82: e389-e390Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar], such as the absence of a proper power analysis, absence of randomization, use of methylprednisolone and hypertensive therapy at the discretion of the treating physician, baseline discrepancies in demographics and neurological function between early and late surgery groups as well as a high heterogeneity in terms of both the selected surgical and the of spinal injury. such which of how confident one can be about the superiority of early versus late surgical intervention for treatment of acute it should be highlighted that, most the study demonstrated no difference in medical or surgical as well as between both groups. STASCIS provides at level 2 evidence the of early surgery for However, in of the the of the injury in the of SCI injury in traumatic spinal cord injury: a of this Google Liu J. following and spinal cord 2008; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar] as well as other cohort studies suggesting of early decompression et after traumatic cervical spinal cord injury is superior if surgical decompression and instrumented fusion are performed within 8 h versus 8 to h after injury: a PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, J.R. A. C. et al.Early versus late surgery for traumatic spinal cord injury: the results of a prospective Canadian cohort 2012; 50: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, G. et outcomes in very early h) and early h) surgical decompression in traumatic cervical spinal cord injury: analysis of neurological improvement from the spinal cord injury 2017; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar], would it not be to the absence of for patients with incomplete spinal cord injury the most conduct at this point would be to early surgery from the medical of one of the most important when considering the level of evidence for the treatment of spinal As the status of scientific evidence can only so in so in spine surgery and, as absence of evidence not evidence of would it be to the a certain intervention it has been to be as as if not to the traditional treatment the level of scientific evidence on the of timing of surgical decompression for acute the evidence so as by systematic and meta-analyses J.M. Zhou Liu decompression superior to delayed surgery for traumatic spinal cord A meta-analysis.World Neurosurg. 2016; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar], enough to a for early intervention in patients with acute SCI are which the for a and thoughtful based on the evidence is on the of each treating In other it is (and actually to and upon high-quality scientific evidence for daily in spine surgery, but this by no from the of our clinical based on a critical and analysis of treatment for each The is not to on EBM but to principles of critical because the evidence may be or G.C. use to and major related to systematic review of randomised controlled 327: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar]. It should be noted that, these of methodological about the and of research the scientific as a several about the of in medical research most published research are Med. 2: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar] as well as for a of the significance testing The of the is what analyses could to the power 2019; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar], the vast majority of scientific research in spine surgery on a of results based on a reliance on a for the statistical significance as well as possible clinical impact of a certain therapy even more if considering the fact that, as pointed by the difference between statistically significant and significant is not statistically significant A. The difference between and is not statistically 2006; Scopus Google Scholar]. It has been that such as the to The to lower P to 2018; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar], although the rates of have the practical of even more the of high quality of scientific evidence in surgical specialties such as of the P in evidence-based to Neurosurg. 2018; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar]. In this the use of and for proper of the of an observed as well as other statistical especially those on a as a to traditional should be R. and statistical evidence to Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google C. with a on 2013; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar]. the associated with the present analysis provides some important lessons about the for scientific evidence in spine surgery. randomized clinical trials in spine surgery are not only in terms of design and conduction demonstrated by but also in terms of proper by more seems to be the of how to interpret of evidence in associated with high as by Finally, as by the 2016 trials on spinal fusion, there is also no of apparently paradoxical results between high-quality

Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.