Contribution of cavitation and photothermal effects in laser lithotripsy
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Recent studies suggest that cavitation effect following laser induced vapor bubble collapse is more dominant than the photothermal effect in stone ablation during laser lithotripsy. Our research aims to introduce an experimental study design that precisely measures each effect's contribution using gypsum phantom stones. To isolate the cavitation-only mechanism after the collapse of the laser-induced vapor bubble, a phantom stone was submerged in a dye solution. The dye solution absorbed all laser light, generating cavitation, with additional experiments confirming the absence of any photothermal effect when the dye was not used. The fiber was positioned both parallel to the stone surface and perpendicular at a 1mm distance, exposing it solely to cavitation. In another set of experiments, a phantom stone was submerged in water and 2μm light from a thulium yttrium aluminum garnet (Tm:YAG) laser was delivered via the same optical fiber positioned (this time) perpendicular to the stone surface. In this case, both optical absorption and cavitation effect from laser-induced vapor bubble collapses were observed but the measured pressure transients showed significantly lower peak pressures compared to the first set. In a final set of experiments, these conditions remained constant, except the fiber was positioned parallel to the stone surface, once again exposing it to only the cavitation from the collapse of the laser induced vapor bubble. Craters created by all methods were imaged using an optical coherence tomography (OCT) system. Measured volumes showed that stone ablation was dominated by photo-thermal, and not by cavitation from the vapor bubble collapse. In fact, in two of the three trials of stone experiments (n=5, each trial) that were subjected to cavitation-only, there was no observable ablation. One trial produced an average volume that was 50% smaller than the average resulting from a single photo-thermal-only case (p = 0.0022 < 0.05). Our results suggest that finetuning of lithotripsy procedures with focus on energy transmission to the stone can provide optimal results.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".