Testing hadronic-model predictions of depth of maximum of air-shower profiles and ground-particle signals using hybrid data of the Pierre Auger Observatory
Bibliographic record
Abstract
We test the predictions of hadronic interaction models regarding the depth of maximum of air-shower profiles, <a:math xmlns:a="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><a:msub><a:mi>X</a:mi><a:mi>max</a:mi></a:msub></a:math>, and ground-particle signals in water-Cherenkov detectors at 1000 m from the shower core, <c:math xmlns:c="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><c:mi>S</c:mi><c:mo stretchy="false">(</c:mo><c:mn>1000</c:mn><c:mo stretchy="false">)</c:mo></c:math>, using the data from the fluorescence and surface detectors of the Pierre Auger Observatory. The test consists of fitting the measured two-dimensional (<g:math xmlns:g="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><g:mi>S</g:mi><g:mo stretchy="false">(</g:mo><g:mn>1000</g:mn><g:mo stretchy="false">)</g:mo></g:math>, <k:math xmlns:k="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><k:msub><k:mi>X</k:mi><k:mi>max</k:mi></k:msub></k:math>) distributions using templates for simulated air showers produced with hadronic interaction models pos-, et--04, 2.3d and leaving the scales of predicted <m:math xmlns:m="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><m:msub><m:mi>X</m:mi><m:mi>max</m:mi></m:msub></m:math> and the signals from hadronic component at ground as free-fit parameters. The method relies on the assumption that the mass composition remains the same at all zenith angles, while the longitudinal shower development and attenuation of ground signal depend on the mass composition in a correlated way. The analysis was applied to 2239 events detected by both the fluorescence and surface detectors of the Pierre Auger Observatory with energies between <o:math xmlns:o="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><o:msup><o:mn>10</o:mn><o:mn>18.5</o:mn></o:msup><o:mtext> </o:mtext><o:mtext> </o:mtext><o:mi>eV</o:mi></o:math> to <q:math xmlns:q="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><q:msup><q:mn>10</q:mn><q:mn>19.0</q:mn></q:msup><q:mtext> </q:mtext><q:mtext> </q:mtext><q:mi>eV</q:mi></q:math> and zenith angles below 60°. We found, that within the assumptions of the method, the best description of the data is achieved if the predictions of the hadronic interaction models are shifted to deeper <s:math xmlns:s="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><s:msub><s:mi>X</s:mi><s:mi>max</s:mi></s:msub></s:math> values and larger hadronic signals at all zenith angles. Given the magnitude of the shifts and the data sample size, the statistical significance of the improvement of data description using the modifications considered in the paper is larger than <u:math xmlns:u="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><u:mn>5</u:mn><u:mi>σ</u:mi></u:math> even for any linear combination of experimental systematic uncertainties. Published by the American Physical Society 2024
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".