To Protect and to Serve: Police, Power, and the Production of Inequality in the United States
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The history of policing in the United States has garnered renewed attention over the past two decades. Historians have rethought the operation and function of police in American society. This body of scholarship, which can be characterized as a critical history of policing, has demonstrated the ways the police became powerful, independent political forces in cities and the role of law enforcement in shaping American life beyond crime prevention or control, most notably in maintaining racial, sexual, gender, and class inequality. The history of policing has been separated from the history of crime, taking account of theoretical frameworks that treat crime as a category that is socially and politically constructed over time. Scholarship since the turn of the twenty-first century highlights several themes including the relationship between crisis and reform, the maintenance of social control, the influence of imperialism and empire, and resistance and repression. The history of police and policing in the United States is a vibrant and distinct field on the cutting edge of the carceral turn in American historiography.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.007 | 0.007 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.006 | 0.004 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".